The intricate web of cancer's biological complexity poses a significant challenge for understanding, controlling, and treating the disease. This endeavour requires a unified approach that spans experimental and clinical realms, as well as a broader conceptual and theoretical framework. A pivotal aspect in this journey is the clarity of concepts, as definitions wield a substantial influence on subsequent research and interpretation. The collaboration between cancer experts and philosophers aims to illuminate complex notions such as 'cancer stem cells' and 'tumour-associated neoantigens'. Moreover, the synergy of disciplines can uncover fresh perspectives; evolutionary biologists probing tumour evolution, ecologists likening tumours to ecosystems, and physicists investigating tumour mechanics all contribute to the broader narrative. To address cancer's multifaceted challenges, integrating philosophy with science offers a pathway to enhance conceptual understanding and identify innovative treatments.

Present-day theories of cancer often confront limitations such as narrow focus, speculation, disconnection from medical contexts, and lack of mathematical formalism. This review argue for a collaborative effort involving philosophy, leveraging its tools of conceptual clarity, critical evaluation, and interdisciplinary connections. This partnership aims to transcend the barriers posed by existing theories, creating a more comprehensive and robust theoretical oncology. By amalgamating the strengths of philosophers' analytical prowess and scientists' empirical expertise, a continuum of contributions emerges, potentially yielding a transformative theoretical landscape in cancer research. The study delves into six pivotal themes in cancer research, scrutinizing them through the dual lenses of scientific exploration and philosophical scrutiny. These themes include the role of mutations, clonal evolution, multicellularity, tumour microenvironment, immune system dynamics, and stem cells. By critically examining these areas, the researchers showcase the intrinsic value of philosophy in enriching scientific and medical comprehension of cancer. This multidisciplinary alliance offers a promising avenue for bolstering our insights into the disease and fostering therapeutic breakthroughs.

Philosophical, theoretical, and interdisciplinary approaches are poised to revolutionise our grasp of cancer, unlocking new avenues for research, diagnosis, and treatment. As the study highlights, precision definitions, critical reasoning, and hidden assumption analysis are instrumental in unravelling the intricate causal web of cancer development. By fostering cooperation between biologists, medical practitioners, mathematicians, physicists, and philosophers, a united effort stands to yield experimental and therapeutic benefits. This convergence approach holds the key to advancing theoretical oncology and propelling cancer research to new horizons.